Mauka to Makai
A science blog for the massesArchive for July, 2009
Fueling the Future…With Urine and Chicken Remnants
The moment you’ve all been waiting for is finally here! Scientists have discovered a way to make something we need (fuel) from a readily accessible, unlimited resource (pee) and a fairly abundant, otherwise useless resource (chicken feather meal).
Why do we need new sources of fuel? Ummm, because…
Oil is old school.
Coal is dirty.
Algae is promising, but not quite ready.
Poop is productive, but kinda stinky.
And ethanol would be grand if it didn’t require so much land.
Clearly, we need more options. Let’s start with the chicken feather meal, a delectable combination of processed chicken feathers, blood and innards. In other words, it’s waste—waste that’s used as animal feed* and fertilizer.
Well, it just so happens that there’s another use for this waste. Scientists from the University of Nevada have found a way to extract the fat from chicken feather meal to make biodiesel. Biodiesel is made from long chains of fatty acids found in vegetable oils (like soy, corn, canola and cotton seed oil) and animal fats (like chicken feather meal).
Of course, growing vegetables to make oils for biodiesel is kinda silly since we, umm, could be eating those vegetables. The most efficient way to produce biofuel, according to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, is to use waste—like chicken feather meal. It just so happens that chicken feather meal is fatty (11% fat) and abundant. The researchers estimate that the amount of feather meal currently produced by the U.S. poultry industry could result in 150-200 million gallons of biodiesel. Using the feather meal from all the poultry processing operations in the world could result in 593.2 million gallons of biodiesel.
That’s a lot of biodiesel—and a lot of chicken feather meal. But we only need the fat from the feather meal to make biodiesel…so what happens to the rest of that nasty slop? It can still be used as animal feed and fertilizer. In fact, the fat-ectomy turns the chicken feather meal into a better animal feed and fertilizer. When the fat is sucked out of the feather meal, the remaining slop has a higher protein content and nitrogen content. The higher protein content makes it a higher-grade animal feed and the higher nitrogen content makes it a higher-grade fertilizer.
Okay, so scientists can extract fat from chicken feather meal to make biodiesel. That makes sense, but how do they make fuel from urine?
Biodiesel isn’t the only nouveau fuel. Hydrogen has been touted as the fuel of the future**…if scientists can just figure out how to make (and store) it cheaply. Until recently, water (H2O) provided the best way to store and transport hydrogen (H), but breaking the H2O into H required a whole lotta very expensive electricity. Then, scientists at Ohio University discovered pee—or, more specifically, the fabulous storage, transportation and hydrogen-producing qualities of pee.
Urine contains urea (CH4N2O), which contains four hydrogen atoms bonded to two nitrogen atoms. The bonds between hydrogen and nitrogen in urea are much looser than those connecting hydrogen and oxygen in water. That means that the bonds are a lot easier to break so producing hydrogen is a cinch (comparatively-speaking). The process goes like this: find a pool of urine, stick a specially-designed (yet inexpensive) electrode in urine, apply a little electrical current (about a quarter of the electricity required to release hydrogen from water), and poof, hydrogen gas is released.
The scientists predict that the urine from one cow could produce enough power to supply hot water to 19 homes.*** The current prototype is smaller than a Rubik’s Cube and produces 500 milliwatts of power. In the not-so-distant future, however, the scientists expect to take the technology to a much larger scale (for use in sewage treatment plants or livestock farms) and a slightly larger scale for individual or home use.
Pee. It’s not just for jellyfish stings or mating rituals anymore.
*We’ll save the discussion about feeding chicken feather meal to cattle, whose bodies are designed to process grass, for another post.
**Unlike fossil fuels, the only emission from hydrogen fuel is water.
***Umm, we’re not sure if that means that one day of one cow’s pee could power 19 houses for a single day or if the amount of urine that cow produces over a year would be enough to supply hot water to 19 houses for a one day. Still, it would be pretty cool to thank Bessie or Mabel or Bert—or whatever cow provides the pee—every time you take a hot shower.
Boggs, B., King, R., & Botte, G. (2009). Urea electrolysis: direct hydrogen production from urine Chemical Communications DOI: 10.1039/b905974a
Kondamudi, N., Strull, J., Misra, M., & Mohapatra, S. (2009). A Green Process for Producing Biodiesel from Feather Meal Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 57 (14), 6163-6166 DOI: 10.1021/jf900140e
Cool Critter: Aye-aye
Years ago, when my high school played our rival high school, we had a cheer that began, “Aye Aye Aye Aye….” The rest of the cheer is totally inappropriate for this post, but I hear that opening line whenever I think of this month’s cool critter, the aye-aye.
The aye-aye (pronounced “eye-eye”), a native of Madagascar, is the largest nocturnal primate* in the world. That’s not particularly impressive since the little guys tip the scales somewhere between 5 ½ and 6 ½ pounds, but ya know, it could come in handy on “Jeopardy” someday.
Aye-ayes are adorable gremlin-like critters with long bushy tails, big eyes, huge ears, large hands and middle fingers that are three times longer than their other fingers. They spend their days sleeping in nests high in the rain forest canopy and spend their nights foraging for nuts, fruit, fungi, nectar, seeds, and insect larvae (a.k.a. grubs).
As our devoted readers know, our standards for the coolness of our Cool Critters are pretty freaking high. The aye-aye, like the African Wild Ass, has a fabulous name, but it’s the aye-aye’s grub-hunting style that earns it Cool Critter status.
To find grubs in trees, aye-ayes use a technique known as “percussive foraging.” They walk along a branch and tap their extra long middle finger quickly against the wood, and then they listen. When the aye-aye hears the sounds of a grub tunnel inside the wood, it goes to town, gnawing through the branch until the tunnel is visible. To get the grubs, the aye-aye sticks its middle finger into the hole, hooks a few grubs, and brings the snack to its mouth.
Aye-ayes’ bodies are totally designed for this style of foraging. Their long, skinny middle fingers move independently of the rest of the aye-aye’s fingers, like a built-in tool. Aye-ayes use their middle fingers to skewer prey, to groom and to drink (by dipping their fingers in liquid and quickly bringing it to their mouths). The aye-aye’s large hands allow it to use one hand to tap and extract prey while the other hand keeps the aye-aye from falling. Its huge, moveable ears allow the foraging animal to tune into the echoes from the tapping to locate insect tunnels. Its long incisors never stop growing, all the better to gnaw through branches. And finally, aye-ayes have a nictitating membrane—also known as a third eyelid—to keep their big eyes moist and to protect them from flying wood shards (a hazard of vigorous gnawing).
All the things that make the aye-aye a Cool Critter have earned it a very different reputation in its native land. According to legend, the aye-aye is a symbol of evil and death. Some say that an aye-aye’s appearance in a village means that a villager will die. Others say that aye-ayes sneak into houses during the night and puncture peoples’ aortas with their middle fingers. Either way, it is believed that the only way to protect oneself and one’s village from the evil aye-aye is by killing the aye-aye immediately.
This threat has never stopped the aye-ayes. The mischievous little critters have always sauntered through villages and raided coconut plantations. Of course, they have been killed. Now, as the aye-ayes’ rainforest habitat is being destroyed, more and more aye-ayes are sneaking into villages—and more and more aye-ayes are killed. And so the aye-aye is endangered.**
*The aye-aye is actually a prosimian, a suborder of primates that aren’t monkeys or apes. Lemurs, bushbabies and tarsiers are also prosimians. Aye-ayes have the largest brain of the prosimians. By the way, aye-ayes have color vision, a unique trait for a nocturnal animal.
** The aye-aye is listed as “near threatened” on the IUCN Red List.
A Letter on Ocean Acidification
Sheril Kirshenbaum at The Intersection received the following letter from ocean champions Randy Repass (of West Marine) and Sally-Christine Rodgers (of Oceana). Since ocean acidification is huge issue that isn’t getting nearly enough attention, Sheril asked her fellow science/ocean/environment bloggers to co-publish the letter. Obviously, we agreed. So…without further ado, here’s the letter:
*****
We are both lifelong boaters. What we have learned from sailing across the Pacific over the past 6 years, and especially from scientists focused on marine conservation, is startling. Whether you spend time on the water or not, Ocean Acidification affects all of us and is something we believe you will want to know about.
What would you do if you knew that many species of fish and other marine life in the ocean will be gone within 30 years if levels of C02 continue increasing at their present rate? We believe you would take action to stop this from happening, because informed people make informed choices. This letter is about what we can and must do together now to help solve a very serious but little-known problem, Ocean Acidification.
Ocean Acidification is primarily caused by the burning of fossil fuels. When carbon dioxide in the atmosphere ends up in the ocean it changes the pH, making the sea acidic and less hospitable to life. Over time, C02 reduces calcium carbonate, which prevents creatures from forming shells and building reefs. In fact, existing shells will start to dissolve. Oysters and mussels will not be able to build shells. Crabs and lobsters? Your great-grandchildren may wonder what they tasted like.
Carbon dioxide concentrated in the oceans is making seawater acidic. Many of the zooplankton, small animals at the base of the food web, have skeletons that won’t form in these conditions, and sea-life further up the food chain – fish, mammals and seabirds that rely on zooplankton for food will also perish. No food – no life. One billion people rely on seafood for their primary source of protein. Many scientific reports document that worldwide, humans are already consuming more food than is being produced. The implications are obvious.
The issue of Ocean Acidification is causing irreversible loss to species and habitats, and acidification trends are happening up to ten times faster than projected. We want you to know what this means, how it affects all of us, and what we can do about it.
Today, the atmospheric concentration of C02 is about 387 parts per million (ppm) and increasing at 2 ppm per year. If left unaddressed, by 2040 it is projected to be over 450 ppm, and marine scientists believe the collapse of many ocean ecosystems will be irreversible. Acidification has other physiological effects on marine life as well, including changes in reproduction, growth rates, and even respiration in fish.
Tropical and coldwater corals are among the oldest and largest living structures on earth; the richest in terms of biodiversity, they provide spawning areas, nursery habitat and feeding grounds for a quarter of all species in the sea. Coral reefs are at risk! As C02 concentrations increase, corals, shellfish and other species that make shells will not be able to build their skeletons and will likely become extinct.
The good news is we can fix this problem. But, as you guessed, it will be difficult. Ocean Acidification is caused by increased C02 in the atmosphere. Solving one will solve the other. The House of Representatives has acted, passing HR 2454, the Waxman-Markey “American Clean Energy and Security Act”, but it was severely weakened. Now the Senate has announced that it will move similar legislation this fall. We need the Senate to join the House in its leadership, but to demand far greater emissions reductions than were able to pass the House.
“The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change concluded that in order to stabilize C02 in the atmosphere at 350 ppm by 2050, global carbon emissions need to be cut 85% below 2000 levels.”That’s a very tall order! And the way our political system works (or doesn’t) makes its tougher. It will take all of us to step up and take responsibility to make this happen.
Here is what you can do: Contact your Senator now using ont of these techniques listed in order of effectiveness.
1. Visit your Senator at their local office. It is easy to make an appointment. Tell them your concerns about C02 and the oceans, and to move strong climate legislation immediately that will reduce our greenhouse gas concentrations to levels that will not threaten our oceans. The experience is rewarding. (Alternatively, drop a letter off at their local office.)
2. Call your Senator and leave a message urging action be taken to reduce C02 , address Ocean Acidification, and move strong climate legislation immediately that will reduce our greenhouse gas concentrations to levels that will not threaten our oceans.
3. Click on this link to send an email, which will go directly to your Senator based on your address: http://www.oceana.org/acid
You may use the letter provided, but it is more effective to edit it, and in your own words urge them to move strong climate legislation immediately that will reduce our greenhouse gas concentrations to levels that will not threaten our oceans.
Ocean Acidification is an issue we can do something about. We need a groundswell of informed citizens to get Congress to have the backbone to stand up to the entrenched interests of coal, oil, and gas and not compromise on the reduction of C02. We also need real leadership to aggressively create jobs using sustainable technologies. The choice is ours. We can solve this or not. What we do know is that the future facing our children, grandchildren and indeed all of humankind depends on our decision.
Please join us in sharing this letter with others. We appreciate your taking the time to contact your Senators; it is easy to do and effective.
Thank you for your support.
West Marine
Board Member
Oceana
A more complete report on ocean acidification here: http://oceana.org/fileadmin/oceana/uploads/Climate_Change/Acid_Test_Report/Acidification_Report.pdf
*****
More on ocean acidification at Mauka to Makai:
It’s Not Just Penguins…
Just like Brangelina, gay penguins always make the headlines. Years ago, Roy and Silo—two male chinstrap penguins at the Central Park Zoo—tried to incubate a rock. It never hatched. Zookeepers then gave the pair an abandoned egg, which they successfully incubated and raised to be a healthy chick.
In 2008, a wily pair of penguins at China’s Polarland Park repeatedly stole eggs from heterosexual couples and replaced them with rocks. Eventually, zookeepers gave the same-sex duo their own eggs to raise.
This spring, when a heterosexual pair of Humboldt penguins at a German zoo rejected their unhatched egg, zookeepers gave the egg to a same-sex couple of the same species. The two dads, Z and Vielpunkt, incubated the egg for about a month and are now caring for the chick as any heterosexual penguin duo would.
Of course, penguins aren’t the only animals that form same-sex couples. In a 2006 article in SEEDMAGAZINE, Jonah Lehrer wrote, “At last count, over 450 different vertebrate species could be beheaded in Saudi Arabia.”
Who? What? Where?
A recent review (Bailey and Zuk, 2009) sets out to answer those answers—or, more accurately: what non-human animals engage in same-sex sexual behavior, what are the evolutionary origins of this behavior and what are the evolutionary consequences of the behavior?
Bottlenose dolphins, Japanese Macaques, bonobos and Acorn woodpeckers may use same-sex sexual behavior to form social bonds, ease tensions and make up after a fight… Garter snakes and Goodeid fish may use male-male courtship for protection… Fruit flies may use same-sex sexual behavior as practice for heterosexual sexual behavior… Male flour beetles may use same-sex copulation as a means to indirectly inseminate a female.
For Laysan albatross, female-female pairing may maximize the reproductive success of the population. In one Laysan albatross colony in Hawaii, 31% of all pairs in the colony were pair-bonded females. (Scientists speculate that the skewed sex ratio—59% of the birds in this population were female—caused the high number of same-sex pairs.) It’s an unusual situation, but it seems to be working. The female pairs enjoy a high level of reproductive success—as parents, they’re way more successful than single females and almost as successful as male-female pairs. Scientists theorize that the pair-bonded females enable the males to have successful extra-pair copulations. In other words, males paired with one female can go off and have a fling with a female who is pair-bonded with another female and, since the two moms are very successful parents, the chances of the cheating male’s offspring surviving are quite high.
For other animals, same-sex coupling may not be much of a reproductive strategy or an adaptive response. It’s just genetic. Researchers have found that male fruit flies with mutations in specific genes (fruitless, dissatisfaction, prospero, quick-to-court, transformer, raised, genderblind or white) court other males.
In nature, same-sex behavior is not only prevalent it’s advantageous. Now really, how can people say that same-sex pairing in humans is unnatural?
Nathan W. Bailey, & Marlene Zuk (2009). Same-sex sexual behavior and evolution Trends in Ecology and Evolution
Stuff I learned today
A wise woman (yeah, it was my mom) once told me to learn at least one new thing every day. Well, thanks to Scientia Pro Publica 7, which includes Saving the Screwed, I’ve learned a lot of new things today. Here’s a teeny tiny sampling:
-Living in prides decreases lions’ hunting effectiveness, but it helps them conquer territory.
-We may be more closely related to orangutans than chimpanzees.
-The guys at Southern Fried Science gave “A Sea Change” rave reviews* and they got to see “The Cove”.
*Go here to see our review of “A Sea Change.”
(FYI: we hosted Scientia Pro Publica 6 here last month.)
EnviroFilms
It seems as though it’s been raining in the Northeast forevah and, according to the 10-day forecast, it’s gonna keep raining forevah—or for the next 10 days, at least. In “honor” of this disgusting weather, we bring you a little bit of news on the latest environmental films.
Last week, we watched a screening of “A Sea Change” at the Gulf of Maine Research Institute. The feature-length documentary explores the issue of ocean acidification as it follows Sven, a retired educator, as he returns to the fishing villages of his childhood. Sven is on a mission to get to the bottom of this ocean acidification dilemma and figure out how to fix it before his grandson is left in a world without fish. The film does a good job explaining the basics of ocean acidification and certainly leaves the viewer with a sense of the urgency of the situation. Better yet, it includes fantastic underwater footage and a cute kid—two elements that practically guarantee the film’s success.
Or not. There were two things that didn’t sit quite right with us. First of all, Sven’s mission is to preserve the ocean for his grandson. As a fit-looking 65 year-old, Sven certainly looks like he’ll be around for a while longer. So, really, he should want to preserve the ocean for himself as well.
And then there’s the scientific inaccuracy. (We know we’re being nitpicky. Please bear with us.) Here’s the deal: At one point, Elias (Sven’s five year-old grandson) draws a dolphin in the sand. Sven asks Elias if a dolphin is a fish. Elias had proven to be a pretty smart five year-old thus far, so we expected him to say, “no, it’s a mammal.” He didn’t. Instead, he confidently informs his grandfather that a dolphin is a lungfish, not a fish, because it has lungs and gills. Sure, the kid is cute, but when that cute kid says something we know is wrong (and no one corrects him), we can’t help questioning the accuracy of the rest of the information covered in the film.
To learn more about ocean acidification, check out last year’s post The Ocean’s Big pHat Problem.
There’s another new environmental film called “The Cove.” It doesn’t look like it’s coming to Maine, but the trailer is definitely fascinating. (Check it out here.)
